History of Frankincense, Ancient Aromatic Tree Resin

Frankincense is an ancient and fabled aromatic tree resin, its use as a fragrant perfume reported from a multitude of historical sources at least as early as 1500 BC. Frankincense consists of the dried resin from the frankincense tree, and it is one of the most common and sought-after of aromatic tree resins in the world even today. Purposes Frankincense resin was used in the past for a variety of medicinal, religious and social purposes, and many of those purposes are still used today. Its perhaps best-known use is to create a permeating scent by burning crystalized pieces during rites of passages such as weddings, childbirth, and funerals. The incense is and was used to smooth and oil hair and sweeten the breath; soot from the incense burners is and was used for eye makeup and tattoos. More pragmatically, melted incense resin is and was used to mend cracked pots and jars: filling the cracks with frankincense makes a vessel watertight again. The bark of the tree is and was used as a red-brown dye for cotton and leather clothing. Some species of resins have a delightful flavor, which is sampled by adding it to coffee or by simply chewing it. Frankincense also is and was also used as a household medicine for dental problems, swellings, bronchitis, and coughs. Harvesting Frankincense has never been domesticated or even truly cultivated: the trees grow where they will and survive in place for very long periods. The trees have no central trunk but seem to grow up out of the bare rock to heights of about 2-2.5 meters or about 7 or 8 feet. The resin is harvested by scraping a 2 centimeter (3/4 of an inch) opening and allowing the resin to ooze out on its own, and harden on the tree trunk. After a few weeks, the resin has dried and can be taken to market. Tapping the resin is done two to three times a year, spaced out so the tree can recover. Frankincense trees can be overexploited: take away too much resin and the seeds wont germinate. The process was not easy: the trees grow in oases surrounded by harsh deserts, and overland routes to market were difficult at best. Nonetheless, the market for incense was so great the traders used myths and fables to keep rivals away. Historical Mentions The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus dated to 1500 BC is the oldest known reference to frankincense, and it prescribes the resin as a use for throat infections and asthmatic attacks. In the first century AD, the Roman writer Pliny mentioned it as an antidote to hemlock; the Islamic philosopher Ibn Sina (or Avicenna, 980-1037 AD) recommended it for tumors, ulcers, and fevers. Other historical references to frankincense appear in the 6th century AD in the  Chinese herbal manuscript Mingyi Bielu, and numerous mentions appear in both old and new testaments of the Judeo-Christian bible. The Periplus maris Erythraei (Periplus of the Erythryean Sea), a 1st century sailors travel guide to shipping lanes in the Mediterranean, Arabian gulf and Indian Ocean, describes several natural products, including frankincense; Periplus states that South Arabian frankincense was of a finer quality and more highly prized than that from East Africa. The Greek writer Herodotus reported in the 5th century BC that frankincense trees were guarded by winged serpents of small size and various colors: a myth promulgated to warn off rivals.   Five Species There are five species of frankincense tree which produce resins suitable for incense, although the two most commercial today are Boswellia carterii or B. freraeana. The resin harvested from the tree varies from species to species, but also within the same species, depending on local climatic conditions. B. carterii (or B. sacra, and called olibanum or dragons blood) is thought to be the tree mentioned in the bible. It grows in Somalia and the Dhofar valley of Oman. The Dhofar valley is a lush green oasis, watered by monsoonal rains in sharp contrast to its surrounding desert. That valley is still the leading source for frankincense in the world today, and the highest grade resins, called Silver and Hojari, are only found there.B. frereana and B. thurifera grow in northern Somalia and are the source of Coptic or Maydi frankincense, treasured by the Coptic church and Saudi Arabian Muslims. These resins have a lemony scent and today are manufactured into a popular chewing gum.B. papyrifera grows in Ethiopia and Sudan and produces a transparent, oily resin.B. serrata is Indian frankincense, golden brown in color and mainly burned as incense and used in Ayurvedic medicine. The International Spice Trade Frankincense, like many other aromatics and spices, was carried from its isolated origins to market along two international trade and commercial routes: the Incense Trade Route (or Incense Road) that carried the trade of Arabia, East Africa and India; and the  Silk Road  that passed through Parthia and Asia. Frankincense was extremely desired, and the demand for it, and the difficulty of getting it distributed to its Mediterranean customers was one of the reasons the Nabataean culture rose to prominence in the first century BC. The Nabataeans were able to monopolize the frankincense trade not at the source in modern Oman, but by controlling the Incense Trade Route that crossed Arabia, East Africa, and India. That trade sprang up during the classical period and had a huge impact on Nabataean architecture, culture, economy and urban development at Petra. Sources: Al Salameen Z. 2011.  The Nabataeans and Asia Minor.  Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry  11(2):55-78.Ben-Yehoshua S, Borowitz C, and HanuÃ… ¡ LO. 2011.  Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea.  Horticultural Reviews: John Wiley Sons, Inc. p 1-76. doi: 10.1002/9781118100592.ch1Erickson-Gini T, and Israel Y. 20113.  Excavating the Nabataean Incense Road.  Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies  1(1):24-53.Seland EH. 2014.Archaeology of Trade in the Western Indian Ocean, 300BC–AD700.  Journal of Archaeological Research  22(4):367-402. doi: 10.1007/s10814-014-9075-7Tomber R. 2012.  From the Roman Red Sea to beyond the Empire: Egyptian ports and their trading partners.  British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan  18:201-215.

The Effects Of Popular Energy Drinks On Young Adults And...

Popular energy drinks, such as Rockstar, 5-Hour Energy, and Monster are consumed by individuals, as a way to remain cognizant, as well as alert, throughout their day. Many of the people consuming these drinks are young adults and teenagers. These people are oftentimes overwhelmed and busy. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, states, â€Å"Energy drinks are beverages that typically contain caffeine, other plant-based stimulants, simple sugars, and other additives. They are very popular among young people and are regularly consumed by 31% of 12- to 17-year-olds and 34% of 18- to 24-year-olds (CDC, 2015, p. 1). These statistics show the ages of people consuming these products and prove that it is mostly young people. Individuals might feel the need to consume an energy drink before a sports match, work, school, homework, or any task which requires them to be mentally, as well as physically alert. There are many different types of energy drinks people can consume and these beverages have similar ingredients. An advantage to these drinks, would be that an individual accomplishes their goal for the day, because they were given the energy to do so. There are also certain health benefits that might occur, due to these drinks. For example, they have ingredients that might protect against some illnesses. However, people who consume these drinks might not know that they could be risking their overall health. The Food and Drug Administration has all three of theseShow MoreRelatedDanger in Disguise Essay1332 Words   |  6 PagesAs a busy teenager, I find my schedule filled with a variety of activities including athletics, academics, and other extra-curricular responsibilities. Although teenagers are supposed to have the opportunity to relax and enjoy their high school years, I find myself becoming overwhelmed with the stress of fulfilling all the expectations placed upon me. 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History and Evolution of Dogs free essay sample

Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors from their wolf ancestors, being pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today. Although experts largely disagree over the details of dog domestication, it is agreed that human interaction played a significant role in shaping the subspecies. Shortly after domestication, dogs became ubiquitous in human populations, and spread throughout the world. Emigrants from Siberia likely crossed the Bering Strait with dogs in their company, and some experts suggest the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago, although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,000 years ago. We will write a custom essay sample on History and Evolution of Dogs or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Dogs were an important part of life for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. The divergence date of roughly 15,000 years ago is based in part on archaeological evidence that demonstrates the domestication of dogs occurred more than 15,000 years ago,and some genetic evidence indicates the domestication of dogs from their wolf ancestors began in the late Upper Paleolithic close to the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary, between 17,000 and 14,000 years ago. But there is a wide range of other, contradictory findings that make this issue controversial. Archaeological evidence suggests the latest dogs could have diverged from wolves was roughly 15,000 years ago, although it is possible they diverged much earlier. In 2008, a team of international scientists released findings from an excavation at Goyet Cave in Belgium declaring a large, toothy canine existed 31,700 years ago and ate a diet of horse, musk ox and reindeer. Prior to this Belgian discovery, the earliest dog fossils were two large skulls from Russia and a mandible from Germany dated from roughly 14,000 years ago. Remains of smaller dogs from Natufian cave deposits in the Middle East, including the earliest burial of a human being with a domestic dog, have been dated to around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. There is a great deal of archaeological evidence for dogs throughout Europe and Asia around this period and through the next two thousand years, with fossils uncovered in Germany, the French Alps, and Iraq, and cave paintings in Turkey The oldest remains of a domesticated dog in the Americas were found in Texas and have been dated to about 9,400 years ago.

Thematic Apperception Test Personality Assessment free essay sample

The history of the Thematic Apperception Test is controversial. This test was published in 1943 and is still widely used today. Being able to look at a photo card as a stimulus for storytelling was a breakthrough for personality testing. This test has its share of controversy as far as reliability, validity and cultural implications. Key words; thematic, validity, reliability, personality. Thematic Apperception Test for Personality Assessment Personality test has been around for over a century and new ones are still being produced. Two of the most frequently used personality test is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). We will look at the TAT’s origin, content, purpose, structure, administration and scoring guidelines. We will also look at the validity, strengths and weakness, and multicultural aspects of the test. The Thematic Apperception Test evolved after over decade of work and was finally â€Å"published by Henry A. Murray and the Staff of Harvard Psychological Clinic in 1943† (Morgan, 1995). We will write a custom essay sample on Thematic Apperception Test Personality Assessment or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There was a lot of controversy over who the author really was. Christina Morgan was originally cited as the senior author when the Series B cards came out but later removed Morgan, 2002). The test had been through three revisions and had a rough start. The goal of this test is to get a person to respond to indistinct stimuli so their personality could be better understood (Frey). By using this method, the therapist hope one would divulge and emotions that they are not showing and any internal conflicts (Frey). When the test first was published, it consists of a set of cards with pictures glued to them, mostly of people. Later more cards were created with pictures drawn in preparation for more use. The Series of cards were labeled â€Å"A-D’. â€Å"Series A† was the original set of cards and were in flux throughout development. â€Å"Series B† consist of thirty cards ten for men, ten for women and ten for both sexes. â€Å"Series C† have twenty eight cards that were used in 1942. â€Å"Series D† was issued in 1943 with thirty one cards and they are still in use today. These cards were modified over time to decrease the complexity and details in order to increase ambiguity (Morgan, 1995). The authors were probably trying to raise the likelihood of projective identification (Morgan, 1995). The purpose of the test is to evaluate personality in conjunction with other test. The TAT is extensively used to research certain subjects â€Å"in psychology, such as dreams and fantasies, mate selection, the factors that motivate peoples choice of occupations, and similar subjects† (Frey). It is occasionally â€Å"used in psychiatric evaluations to assess disordered thinking and in forensic examinations to evaluate crime suspects, even though it is not a diagnostic test† (Frey). The TAT can also be helpful to individuals when it comes to understanding their own personality in with greater intensity and adding to that information in making significant life decisions. â€Å"Lastly, it is sometimes used as screener psychological evaluations of candidates for high-stress occupations (law enforcement, the military, religious ministry, for example)† (Frey). There is not a standardize set of rules for the TAT. The set of cards that are used are up to the clinician and the test is not timed. The administrator should explain the purpose of the test and clarify anything that’s confusing. Also they should make sure the room is quiet, and free of distractions. Murray intends for each person to be given twenty cards but due to time constraints, most people give ten to fourteen cards. Individuals are given cards and are told to tell a story about the cards. They have to tell what led them to their conclusion about the card. They have to express what the characters is feeling, thinking and what’s happening at the moment. The stories have to have three parts, beginning, middle and end. The final card they are given is a blank card and they are told to make up their own story with the same information as the previous cards. Examples of the cards are a girl standing alone looking as if she had been frightened, and a young man and older man standing together with the older man pointing as if making a point or arguing with the younger man. The directions can be modified for children and adults with limited intelligence. The cards are kept faced down until needed. The examiner must record all the responses by hand or machine. In order to get all the nonverbal, you may have to take hand notes. This test is not scored like other test. Keep in mind that there are no right and wrong answers; there is no normative scoring system. Experts who use the test recommend that clinicians obtain background history including personal and medical information from the individuals in order to have a base to go on when evaluating the test. The original scoring system by Murray is deemed time-consuming and cumbersome and not used as much today. New scoring systems have been developed that use fewer variables â€Å"for examples, hostility or depression†. These new systems lack comprehensiveness but are good for clinical use. Two of the scoring systems are The Defense Mechanisms Manual (DMM) was developed to use with the TAT. It assesses three defenses: denial (least mature), projection (intermediate), and identification (most mature) as shown in the stories from the cards (The Defense Mechanism Manual). The second system is Social Cognition and Object Relations SCOR scale. â€Å"This assesses four different dimensions of object relations and social cognition as measured from the TAT: Complexity of Representations of People , Affect-Tone of Relationship Paradigms, and Capacity for Emotional Investment in Relationships and Moral Standards, and Understanding of Social Causality† (Gold, Kerber, Lohr, Silk, amp; Westen, 1990). Clinicians frequently report that the TAT’s reliability for test-retest is poor. A research was done to show that standard estimates may not be appropriate when looking at reliability in TAT. The study was conducted over a two year period and the results they were expected were in the rage of . 40-. 50. The present results were. 48-. 56 slightly higher than predicted. The results show that classical psychometrics may not be compatible and alpha is not an appropriate measure. Reliability is not as easily determine for this test since each response is based on how or if the subject answers the question. Some researchers would say that TAT is not a valid test while others disagree. Those who don’t believe the test are misused in clinical settings and there is no correlation between storytelling and self-report. Those who disagree say that TAT uses implicit/explicit difference â€Å"found in other cognitive domains, the two types of motives reflect different levels of awareness and are related to different modes of information processing† (McAdams amp; A. , 2001)). The big three implicit motives achievement, power, and ntimacy/affiliation have been validated for over forty years and are part of extremely successful research programs, and TAT have all of these elements. Criticisms about the TAT are it is not administered the same way each time, and because it is difficult to standardize explanations the stories produce. Psychologist David McClelland created a scoring system to help to introduce more strictness. Research that was conducted show that three factors (race, sex, and social class) influence what stories are told and how they are translated. The cards that are used have been criticized for having a gloomy and negative tone consequently limiting the degree of personality characteristics that can be explored using the TAT. Finally the TAT which follows the Freudian theory of repression has lost some of its pull in Western psychology which may cause its use to decline. Multicultural differences have to be taken in to account when scoring or interpreting the results. Different cultures may see the cards differently because of their background. Their story could be considered normal in their culture. In addition, the 1992 Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association requires examiners to be knowledgeable about cultural and social differences, and to be responsible in interpreting test results with regard to these differences† (Frey). When the cards were first created, all of the figures were white so the cards now have more variety just in case it was an issue. Cards are created for each culture that is using them to keep the photos relevant to them. Personality tests have evolved over the years but the Thematic Apperception Test is still in use. It started with a controversial beginning as far as authorship and contributors. Some would say that this test is reliable and a valid way to help assess someone’s personality type in conjunction with other test. Every test has weakness and precautions need to be taken to help avoid any validation issues.

Free Essays on American Propaganda Of The First World War

American Propaganda of The First World War As the Great War dragged on in Europe throughout 1914, 1915, and 1916, an overwhelming majority of the American people were determined to stay out of a war they saw as none of their affair. America was still strongly isolationist and deeply reluctant to become involved in the disputes of the outside world. President Wilson had just won reelection to a second term based in large part upon his policy of staying out of the great European war, and was perceived as unlikely to allow the republic to be dragged into the bloody fighting across the Atlantic. But as events coalesced in 1917 a stark and threatening future appeared imminent. The Germans had just launched unrestricted submarine warfare in an effort to starve Great Britain into submission, the French armies appeared about to collapse, and Russia had dissolved in chaos and revolution. By early spring it had become increasingly clear to President Wilson and his advisers that the United States had no choice but to join the allied cause. If America didn’t come to the aid of the Allies Imperial Germany was certain to win, with dire consequences for the future of democracy. When America finally entered the war on April 6, 1917, it was very clear in Washington that unwavering public support would be crucial to the success of the wartime effort. So, as Pratkanis relates, (1999) within a week of the declaration of war President Wilson created the Committee on Public Information to promote the war domestically while publicizing American war aims abroad. The CPI recruited heavily from the business, newspaper, and art worlds, and blended public relations techniques with a sophisticated understanding of human psychology to disseminate propaganda on an unprecedented scale. The first task of the new organization was research. CPI staff were set to work gathering information about the war, particularly material rega... Free Essays on American Propaganda Of The First World War Free Essays on American Propaganda Of The First World War American Propaganda of The First World War As the Great War dragged on in Europe throughout 1914, 1915, and 1916, an overwhelming majority of the American people were determined to stay out of a war they saw as none of their affair. America was still strongly isolationist and deeply reluctant to become involved in the disputes of the outside world. President Wilson had just won reelection to a second term based in large part upon his policy of staying out of the great European war, and was perceived as unlikely to allow the republic to be dragged into the bloody fighting across the Atlantic. But as events coalesced in 1917 a stark and threatening future appeared imminent. The Germans had just launched unrestricted submarine warfare in an effort to starve Great Britain into submission, the French armies appeared about to collapse, and Russia had dissolved in chaos and revolution. By early spring it had become increasingly clear to President Wilson and his advisers that the United States had no choice but to join the allied cause. If America didn’t come to the aid of the Allies Imperial Germany was certain to win, with dire consequences for the future of democracy. When America finally entered the war on April 6, 1917, it was very clear in Washington that unwavering public support would be crucial to the success of the wartime effort. So, as Pratkanis relates, (1999) within a week of the declaration of war President Wilson created the Committee on Public Information to promote the war domestically while publicizing American war aims abroad. The CPI recruited heavily from the business, newspaper, and art worlds, and blended public relations techniques with a sophisticated understanding of human psychology to disseminate propaganda on an unprecedented scale. The first task of the new organization was research. CPI staff were set to work gathering information about the war, particularly material rega...

In the Last Throes

In the Last Throes In the Last Throes In the Last Throes By Maeve Maddox An amusing egg-corn that has just appeared on my radar is that of writing in the throes of as in the throws of. A protagonist in the throws of madness Plaster cast of a Pompeii resident in the throws of death Iraq is in the last throws of insurgency AMD in final death throws? in the throws of the epidemic Question: Why do cockroaches die on their backs? Answer: Because in the throws of death, they often tip or topple over Although both words may derive from the same Old English word, à ¾rawan to twist, turn writhe, theyve been used with distinctly different meanings long enough to make the mix-up amusing. (Throe may derive instead from O.E. à ¾rowian to suffer.) The OED offers these definitions: throe: A violent spasm or pang, such as convulses the body, limbs, or face. Also, a spasm of feeling; a paroxysm; agony of mind; anguish.  Ã‚  Ã‚      The pain and struggle of childbirth; pl. labour-pangs. The agony of death; the death-struggle, death-throe. A violent convulsion or struggle preceding or accompanying the ‘bringing forth’ of something. To confuse the issue, theres a blog called In the Throws of Resistance, and a song called In the Throws of a Moral Quandary. Theres also a villainous group (Marvel Comics) called the Death-Throws. Their name is a pun on death throes. Theyre jugglers. The things they throw cause death, hence, death throws. Take care next time you want to express the idea of intense suffering or passion. Throes in the sense of violent feeling is too good a word to throw away. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:10 Grammar Mistakes You Should AvoidDeck the HallsDrama vs. Melodrama

Operations Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Operations Management - Essay Example The efficient processing of work flow tends to cause an impact on the reduction of inventories which saves costs immensely. Inventory cost at times may be too much to bear for organizations and therefore reduction of inventories saves cost for organizations. Focusing on high quality may reduce the cost of redoing the task again. Customers want high quality products at all time and organizations should ensure high quality working environment to reduce the changes or complains that are related to quality by customers. This would build strong brand image and reduce the cost and time of producing the product again. Overheads should be eliminated to the maximum level so that work processed and flows are faster and the further steps are carried out in a more effective manner. Reduction of overhead costs tends to make the organization highly cost effective. While focusing on generating revenue at a fast pace, the order deliveries need to be made quick, this way cash flows may be improving at a constant mode and cost of working capital may be reduced immensely. Customers are satisfied with faster deliveries and for organizations cash flows are improved (Meredith and Schafer, 24). The element of communicating and delegating tasks in an effective mode may allow the employees to do error free work and this further would result in meeting the demands of the customers in an effective way without facing the issue of customer complains. Orders from customers will come in more as they will be satisfied with the results. Error free work will allow the employee hard work to be recognized by the organization and this will further improve the working conditions of the employees (Meredith and Schafer, 24). Responding to customers at a fast pace may allow the unit cost of the product or service to be abridged at a certain level.